Peptide name : Growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15)

Source/Organism : Human

Linear/Cyclic : Not found

Chirality : Not found

Peptide length: 308

C-terminal modification: Not found

N-terminal modification : Not found

Non-natural peptide information: None

Assay type : Not specified

Assay time : 6h

Activity : Not found

Cell line : A549

Cancer type : Certain cancers (Not specified)

Other activity : Not found

Amino acid composition bar chart :

Molecular mass : 34139.8431 Dalton

Aliphatic index : 0.897

Instability index : 63.8886

Hydrophobicity (GRAVY) : -0.362

Isoelectric point : 9.7892

Charge (pH 7) : 12.504

Aromaticity : 0.039

Molar extinction coefficient (cysteine, cystine): (31970, 32470)

Hydrophobic/hydrophilic ratio : 1.13194444

hydrophobic moment : 0.0508

Missing amino acid : None

Most occurring amino acid : L

Most occurring amino acid frequency : 46

Least occurring amino acid : n

Least occurring amino acid frequency : 1

Secondary structure fraction (Helix, Turn, Sheet): (0.3, 0.3, 0.3)

SMILES Notation: CC[C@H](C)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccc(O)cc1)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccc(O)cc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccccc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CCSC)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]c2ccccc12)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]c2ccccc12)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CS)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]c2ccccc12)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccccc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)CNC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]c2ccccc12)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccc(O)cc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCCN)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccccc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc1c[nH]cn1)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)CNC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@H](Cc1ccccc1)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCCNC(=N)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)O)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](CC(C)C)NC(=O)[C@H](C)NC(=O)CNC(=O)CNC(=O)[C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1 : Baek SJ, et al. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors regulate the expression of a TGF-beta superfamily member that has proapoptotic and antitumorigenic activities. Mol Pharmacol. 2001; 59:901-8.

2 : Yang L, et al. GFRAL is the receptor for GDF15 and is required for the anti-obesity effects of the ligand. Nat Med. 2017; 23:1158-1166. doi: 10.1038/nm.4394

3 : Emmerson PJ, et al. The metabolic effects of GDF15 are mediated by the orphan receptor GFRAL. Nat Med. 2017; 23:1215-1219. doi: 10.1038/nm.4393

4 : Ota T, et al. Complete sequencing and characterization of 21,243 full-length human cDNAs. Nat Genet. 2004; 36:40-5. doi: 10.1038/ng1285

5 : Luan HH, et al. GDF15 Is an Inflammation-Induced Central Mediator of Tissue Tolerance. Cell. 2019; 178:1231-1244.e11. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.033

6 : Grimwood J, et al. The DNA sequence and biology of human chromosome 19. Nature. 2004; 428:529-35. doi: 10.1038/nature02399

7 : Yokoyama-Kobayashi M, et al. Human cDNA encoding a novel TGF-beta superfamily protein highly expressed in placenta. J Biochem. 1997; 122:622-6. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021798

8 : Paralkar VM, et al. Cloning and characterization of a novel member of the transforming growth factor-beta/bone morphogenetic protein family. J Biol Chem. 1998; 273:13760-7. doi: 10.1074/jbc.273.22.13760

9 : Tsai VW, et al. The anorectic actions of the TGFβ cytokine MIC-1/GDF15 require an intact brainstem area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract. PLoS One. 2014; 9:e100370. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100370

10 : Mullican SE, et al. GFRAL is the receptor for GDF15 and the ligand promotes weight loss in mice and nonhuman primates. Nat Med. 2017; 23:1150-1157. doi: 10.1038/nm.4392

11 : Klein AB, et al. The GDF15-GFRAL pathway is dispensable for the effects of metformin on energy balance. Cell Rep. 2022; 40:111258. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111258

12 : Gerhard DS, et al. The status, quality, and expansion of the NIH full-length cDNA project: the Mammalian Gene Collection (MGC). Genome Res. 2004; 14:2121-7. doi: 10.1101/gr.2596504

13 : Wang T, et al. GDF15 is a heart-derived hormone that regulates body growth. EMBO Mol Med. 2017; 9:1150-1164. doi: 10.15252/emmm.201707604

14 : Bootcov MR, et al. MIC-1, a novel macrophage inhibitory cytokine, is a divergent member of the TGF-beta superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997; 94:11514-9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.21.11514

15 : Day EA, et al. Metformin-induced increases in GDF15 are important for suppressing appetite and promoting weight loss. Nat Metab. 2019; 1:1202-1208. doi: 10.1038/s42255-019-0146-4

16 : Tsai VW, et al. TGF-b superfamily cytokine MIC-1/GDF15 is a physiological appetite and body weight regulator. PLoS One. 2013; 8:e55174. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055174

17 : Lu JF, et al. GDF15 is a major determinant of ketogenic diet-induced weight loss. Cell Metab. 2023; 35:2165-2182.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2023.11.003

18 : Hromas R, et al. PLAB, a novel placental bone morphogenetic protein. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997; 1354:40-4. doi: 10.1016/s0167-4781(97)00122-x

19 : Patel S, et al. GDF15 Provides an Endocrine Signal of Nutritional Stress in Mice and Humans. Cell Metab. 2019; 29:707-718.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.12.016

20 : Klein AB, et al. Pharmacological but not physiological GDF15 suppresses feeding and the motivation to exercise. Nat Commun. 2021; 12:1041. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-21309-x

21 : Jernigan RJ, et al. Room-temperature structural studies of SARS-CoV-2 protein NendoU with an X-ray free-electron laser. Structure. 2023; 31:138-151.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.str.2022.12.009

22 : Suriben R, et al. Antibody-mediated inhibition of GDF15-GFRAL activity reverses cancer cachexia in mice. Nat Med. 2020; 26:1264-1270. doi: 10.1038/s41591-020-0945-x

23 : Lawton LN, et al. Identification of a novel member of the TGF-beta superfamily highly expressed in human placenta. Gene. 1997; 203:17-26. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1119(97)00485-x

24 : Fejzo MS, et al. Placenta and appetite genes GDF15 and IGFBP7 are associated with hyperemesis gravidarum. Nat Commun. 2018; 9:1178. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-03258-0

25 : Breen DM, et al. GDF-15 Neutralization Alleviates Platinum-Based Chemotherapy-Induced Emesis, Anorexia, and Weight Loss in Mice and Nonhuman Primates. Cell Metab. 2020; 32:938-950.e6. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2020.10.023

26 : Coll AP, et al. GDF15 mediates the effects of metformin on body weight and energy balance. Nature. 2020; 578:444-448. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1911-y

27 : Fejzo MS, et al. Whole-exome sequencing uncovers new variants in GDF15 associated with hyperemesis gravidarum. BJOG. 2022; 129:1845-1852. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.17129

Paper title : Cyclooxygenase inhibitors regulate the expression of a TGF-beta superfamily member that has proapoptotic and antitumorigenic activities.

Doi : https://doi.org/Not available

Abstract : The antitumorigenic activity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors, is well established, but responsible molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. NSAIDs stimulate apoptosis by COX dependent and independent mechanisms in colorectal cells in culture. Identification of genes regulated by COX inhibitors could lead to a better understanding of their proapoptotic and anti-neoplastic activities. Using subtractive hybridization, a cDNA which was designated as NSAID activated gene (NAG-1) was identified from NSAID-treated HCT-116, human colorectal cells. NAG-1 has an identical sequence with a novel member of the TGF-beta superfamily that has 5 different names. In the HCT-116 cells, NAG-1 expression is increased and apoptosis is induced by treatment with some NSAIDs in a concentration and time-dependent manner. NAG-1 transfected cells exhibited increased basal apoptosis, increased response to NSAIDs and reduced soft agar cloning efficiency. Furthermore, transplantable tumors derived from NAG-1 transfected HCT-116 cells showed reduced tumorigenicity in athymic nude mice compared with vector-transfected HCT-116 cells. The increased NAG-1 expression by NSAIDs provides a suitable explanation for COX-independent apoptotic effects of NSAIDs in cultured cells. These data demonstrate that NAG-1 is an antitumorigenic and proapoptotic protein, and its regulation by COX inhibitors may provide new clues for explaining their proapoptotic and antitumorigenic activities.

Paper title : GFRAL is the receptor for GDF15 and is required for the anti-obesity effects of the ligand.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4394

Abstract : Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15; also known as MIC-1) is a divergent member of the TGF-β superfamily and is associated with body-weight regulation in humans and rodents. However, the cognate receptor of GDF15 is unknown. Here we show that GDF15 binds specifically to GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL) with high affinity, and that GFRAL requires association with the coreceptor RET to elicit intracellular signaling in response to GDF15 stimulation. We also found that GDF15-mediated reductions in food intake and body weight of mice with obesity were abolished in GFRAL-knockout mice. We further found that GFRAL expression was limited to hindbrain neurons and not present in peripheral tissues, which suggests that GDF15-GFRAL-mediated regulation of food intake is by a central mechanism. Lastly, given that GDF15 did not increase energy expenditure in treated mice with obesity, the anti-obesity actions of the cytokine are likely driven primarily by a reduction in food intake.

Paper title : The metabolic effects of GDF15 are mediated by the orphan receptor GFRAL.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4393

Abstract : Growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), also known as MIC-1, is a distant member of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily and has been implicated in various biological functions, including cancer cachexia, renal and heart failure, atherosclerosis and metabolism. A connection between GDF15 and body-weight regulation was initially suggested on the basis of an observation that increasing GDF15 levels in serum correlated with weight loss in individuals with advanced prostate cancer. In animal models, overexpression of GDF15 leads to a lean phenotype, hypophagia and other improvements in metabolic parameters, suggesting that recombinant GDF15 protein could potentially be used in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the signaling and mechanism of action of GDF15 are poorly understood owing to the absence of a clearly identified cognate receptor. Here we report that GDNF-family receptor α-like (GFRAL), an orphan member of the GFR-α family, is a high-affinity receptor for GDF15. GFRAL binds to GDF15 in vitro and is required for the metabolic actions of GDF15 with respect to body weight and food intake in vivo in mice. Gfral-/- mice were refractory to the effects of recombinant human GDF15 on body-weight, food-intake and glucose parameters. Blocking the interaction between GDF15 and GFRAL with a monoclonal antibody prevented the metabolic effects of GDF15 in rats. Gfral mRNA is highly expressed in the area postrema of mouse, rat and monkey, in accordance with previous reports implicating this region of the brain in the metabolic actions of GDF15 (refs. 4,5,6). Together, our data demonstrate that GFRAL is a receptor for GDF15 that mediates the metabolic effects of GDF15.

Paper title : Complete sequencing and characterization of 21,243 full-length human cDNAs.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1285

Abstract : As a base for human transcriptome and functional genomics, we created the "full-length long Japan" (FLJ) collection of sequenced human cDNAs. We determined the entire sequence of 21,243 selected clones and found that 14,490 cDNAs (10,897 clusters) were unique to the FLJ collection. About half of them (5,416) seemed to be protein-coding. Of those, 1,999 clusters had not been predicted by computational methods. The distribution of GC content of nonpredicted cDNAs had a peak at approximately 58% compared with a peak at approximately 42%for predicted cDNAs. Thus, there seems to be a slight bias against GC-rich transcripts in current gene prediction procedures. The rest of the cDNAs unique to the FLJ collection (5,481) contained no obvious open reading frames (ORFs) and thus are candidate noncoding RNAs. About one-fourth of them (1,378) showed a clear pattern of splicing. The distribution of GC content of noncoding cDNAs was narrow and had a peak at approximately 42%, relatively low compared with that of protein-coding cDNAs.

Paper title : GDF15 Is an Inflammation-Induced Central Mediator of Tissue Tolerance.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.033

Abstract : Growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) is an inflammation-associated hormone with poorly defined biology. Here, we investigated the role of GDF15 in bacterial and viral infections. We found that inflammation induced GDF15, and that GDF15 was necessary for surviving both bacterial and viral infections, as well as sepsis. The protective effects of GDF15 were largely independent of pathogen control or the magnitude of inflammatory response, suggesting a role in disease tolerance. Indeed, we found that GDF15 was required for hepatic sympathetic outflow and triglyceride metabolism. Failure to defend the lower limit of plasma triglyceride levels was associated with impaired cardiac function and maintenance of body temperature, effects that could be rescued by exogenous administration of lipids. Together, we show that GDF15 coordinates tolerance to inflammatory damage through regulation of triglyceride metabolism.

Paper title : The DNA sequence and biology of human chromosome 19.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02399

Abstract : Chromosome 19 has the highest gene density of all human chromosomes, more than double the genome-wide average. The large clustered gene families, corresponding high G + C content, CpG islands and density of repetitive DNA indicate a chromosome rich in biological and evolutionary significance. Here we describe 55.8 million base pairs of highly accurate finished sequence representing 99.9% of the euchromatin portion of the chromosome. Manual curation of gene loci reveals 1,461 protein-coding genes and 321 pseudogenes. Among these are genes directly implicated in mendelian disorders, including familial hypercholesterolaemia and insulin-resistant diabetes. Nearly one-quarter of these genes belong to tandemly arranged families, encompassing more than 25% of the chromosome. Comparative analyses show a fascinating picture of conservation and divergence, revealing large blocks of gene orthology with rodents, scattered regions with more recent gene family expansions and deletions, and segments of coding and non-coding conservation with the distant fish species Takifugu.

Paper title : Human cDNA encoding a novel TGF-beta superfamily protein highly expressed in placenta.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021798

Abstract : Recently, we developed a simple method for detecting a secretory signal sequence encoded by a cDNA fragment. In this study, we used this method to select cDNA clones encoding secretory proteins from a human full-length cDNA library. Full-sequencing analysis of the candidate clones revealed that one clone encoded a novel TGF-beta superfamily protein. The clone encodes a protein of 308 amino acids of which the C-terminal region shows a characteristic feature of TGF-beta superfamily proteins: seven conserved cysteine residues at the C-terminal preceded by a putative processing site composed of a basic amino acid repeat. The corresponding transcripts are highly expressed in the placenta, so the novel protein may play an important role in reproduction.

Paper title : Cloning and characterization of a novel member of the transforming growth factor-beta/bone morphogenetic protein family.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.273.22.13760

Abstract : Members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of growth and differentiation factors have been identified in a wide variety of organisms, ranging from invertebrates to mammals. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) constitute a subgroup of proteins belonging to the TGF-beta superfamily. BMPs were initially identified by their ability to induce endochondral bone formation at ectopic sites, suggesting a critical role for this family in development and regeneration of the skeleton. They are also expressed at a variety of nonskeletal sites during development, suggesting possible extraskeletal roles for these proteins. We cloned a novel member of the BMP family that is expressed at high levels in the placenta and the prostate and that we have designated as prostate-derived factor (PDF). Based on cDNA sequence analysis, the predicted PDF protein contains two cysteines in addition to the seven conserved cysteines that are the hallmark of the members of the TGF-beta superfamily. In addition, Northern blot hybridization to poly(A)+ RNA showed low levels of expression in the kidney and pancreas. We further characterized the expression of this member of the BMP family by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. These results show high expression in the terminal villae of the placenta. The expression of the protein as visualized by immunohistochemistry shows an expression pattern identical to that of the message in the terminal villae of the placenta. In day 18 rat embryos, protein expression was also seen in the skin and in the cartilaginous tissue of developing skeleton. Orchidectomy and dihydrotestosterone treatment of rats revealed that PDF expression is regulated by androgens in the prostate. In addition, subcutaneous implantation of recombinant PDF induced cartilage formation and the early stages of endochondral bone formation. These data indicate that PDF has a functional relationship to the BMPs.

Paper title : The anorectic actions of the TGFβ cytokine MIC-1/GDF15 require an intact brainstem area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100370

Abstract : Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1/GDF15) modulates food intake and body weight under physiological and pathological conditions by acting on the hypothalamus and brainstem. When overexpressed in disease, such as in advanced cancer, elevated serum MIC-1/GDF15 levels lead to an anorexia/cachexia syndrome. To gain a better understanding of its actions in the brainstem we studied MIC-1/GDF15 induced neuronal activation identified by induction of Fos protein. Intraperitoneal injection of human MIC-1/GDF15 in mice activated brainstem neurons in the area postrema (AP) and the medial (m) portion of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which did not stain with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). To determine the importance of these brainstem nuclei in the anorexigenic effect of MIC-1/GDF15, we ablated the AP alone or the AP and the NTS. The latter combined lesion completely reversed the anorexigenic effects of MIC-1/GDF15. Altogether, this study identified neurons in the AP and/or NTS, as being critical for the regulation of food intake and body weight by MIC-1/GDF15.

Paper title : GFRAL is the receptor for GDF15 and the ligand promotes weight loss in mice and nonhuman primates.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4392

Abstract : Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), a distant member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β family, is a secreted protein that circulates as a 25-kDa dimer. In humans, elevated GDF15 correlates with weight loss, and the administration of GDF15 to mice with obesity reduces body weight, at least in part, by decreasing food intake. The mechanisms through which GDF15 reduces body weight remain poorly understood, because the cognate receptor for GDF15 is unknown. Here we show that recombinant GDF15 induces weight loss in mice fed a high-fat diet and in nonhuman primates with spontaneous obesity. Furthermore, we find that GDF15 binds with high affinity to GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL), a distant relative of receptors for a distinct class of the TGF-β superfamily ligands. Gfral is expressed in neurons of the area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract in mice and humans, and genetic deletion of the receptor abrogates the ability of GDF15 to decrease food intake and body weight in mice. In addition, diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance are exacerbated in GFRAL-deficient mice, suggesting a homeostatic role for this receptor in metabolism. Finally, we demonstrate that GDF15-induced cell signaling requires the interaction of GFRAL with the coreceptor RET. Our data identify GFRAL as a new regulator of body weight and as the bona fide receptor mediating the metabolic effects of GDF15, enabling a more comprehensive assessment of GDF15 as a potential pharmacotherapy for the treatment of obesity.

Paper title : The GDF15-GFRAL pathway is dispensable for the effects of metformin on energy balance.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111258

Abstract : Metformin is a blood-glucose-lowering medication with physiological effects that extend beyond its anti-diabetic indication. Recently, it was reported that metformin lowers body weight via induction of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), which suppresses food intake by binding to the GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL) in the hindbrain. Here, we corroborate that metformin increases circulating GDF15 in mice and humans, but we fail to confirm previous reports that the GDF15-GFRAL pathway is necessary for the weight-lowering effects of metformin. Instead, our studies in wild-type, GDF15 knockout, and GFRAL knockout mice suggest that the GDF15-GFRAL pathway is dispensable for the effects of metformin on energy balance. The data presented here question whether metformin is a sufficiently strong stimulator of GDF15 to drive anorexia and weight loss and emphasize that additional work is needed to untangle the relationship among metformin, GDF15, and energy balance.

Paper title : The status, quality, and expansion of the NIH full-length cDNA project: the Mammalian Gene Collection (MGC).

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.2596504

Abstract : The National Institutes of Health's Mammalian Gene Collection (MGC) project was designed to generate and sequence a publicly accessible cDNA resource containing a complete open reading frame (ORF) for every human and mouse gene. The project initially used a random strategy to select clones from a large number of cDNA libraries from diverse tissues. Candidate clones were chosen based on 5'-EST sequences, and then fully sequenced to high accuracy and analyzed by algorithms developed for this project. Currently, more than 11,000 human and 10,000 mouse genes are represented in MGC by at least one clone with a full ORF. The random selection approach is now reaching a saturation point, and a transition to protocols targeted at the missing transcripts is now required to complete the mouse and human collections. Comparison of the sequence of the MGC clones to reference genome sequences reveals that most cDNA clones are of very high sequence quality, although it is likely that some cDNAs may carry missense variants as a consequence of experimental artifact, such as PCR, cloning, or reverse transcriptase errors. Recently, a rat cDNA component was added to the project, and ongoing frog (Xenopus) and zebrafish (Danio) cDNA projects were expanded to take advantage of the high-throughput MGC pipeline.

Paper title : GDF15 is a heart-derived hormone that regulates body growth.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.15252/emmm.201707604

Abstract : The endocrine system is crucial for maintaining whole-body homeostasis. Little is known regarding endocrine hormones secreted by the heart other than atrial/brain natriuretic peptides discovered over 30 years ago. Here, we identify growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) as a heart-derived hormone that regulates body growth. We show that pediatric heart disease induces GDF15 synthesis and secretion by cardiomyocytes. Circulating GDF15 in turn acts on the liver to inhibit growth hormone (GH) signaling and body growth. We demonstrate that blocking cardiomyocyte production of GDF15 normalizes circulating GDF15 level and restores liver GH signaling, establishing GDF15 as a bona fide heart-derived hormone that regulates pediatric body growth. Importantly, plasma GDF15 is further increased in children with concomitant heart disease and failure to thrive (FTT). Together these studies reveal a new endocrine mechanism by which the heart coordinates cardiac function and body growth. Our results also provide a potential mechanism for the well-established clinical observation that children with heart diseases often develop FTT.

Paper title : MIC-1, a novel macrophage inhibitory cytokine, is a divergent member of the TGF-beta superfamily.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.21.11514

Abstract : Macrophages play a key role in both normal and pathological processes involving immune and inflammatory responses, to a large extent through their capacity to secrete a wide range of biologically active molecules. To identify some of these as yet not characterized molecules, we have used a subtraction cloning approach designed to identify genes expressed in association with macrophage activation. One of these genes, designated macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 (MIC-1), encodes a protein that bears the structural characteristics of a transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily cytokine. Although it belongs to this superfamily, it has no strong homology to existing families, indicating that it is a divergent member that may represent the first of a new family within this grouping. Expression of MIC-1 mRNA in monocytoid cells is up-regulated by a variety of stimuli associated with activation, including interleukin 1beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin 2, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor but not interferon gamma, or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Its expression is also increased by TGF-beta. Expression of MIC-1 in CHO cells results in the proteolytic cleavage of the propeptide and secretion of a cysteine-rich dimeric protein of Mr 25 kDa. Purified recombinant MIC-1 is able to inhibit lipopolysaccharide -induced macrophage TNF-alpha production, suggesting that MIC-1 acts in macrophages as an autocrine regulatory molecule. Its production in response to secreted proinflammatory cytokines and TGF-beta may serve to limit the later phases of macrophage activation.

Paper title : Metformin-induced increases in GDF15 are important for suppressing appetite and promoting weight loss.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-019-0146-4

Abstract : Metformin is the most commonly prescribed medication for type 2 diabetes, owing to its glucose-lowering effects, which are mediated through the suppression of hepatic glucose production (reviewed in refs. 1-3). However, in addition to its effects on the liver, metformin reduces appetite and in preclinical models exerts beneficial effects on ageing and a number of diverse diseases (for example, cognitive disorders, cancer, cardiovascular disease) through mechanisms that are not fully understood1-3. Given the high concentration of metformin in the liver and its many beneficial effects beyond glycemic control, we reasoned that metformin may increase the secretion of a hepatocyte-derived endocrine factor that communicates with the central nervous system4. Here we show, using unbiased transcriptomics of mouse hepatocytes and analysis of proteins in human serum, that metformin induces expression and secretion of growth differentiating factor 15 (GDF15). In primary mouse hepatocytes, metformin stimulates the secretion of GDF15 by increasing the expression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP; also known as DDIT3). In wild-type mice fed a high-fat diet, oral administration of metformin increases serum GDF15 and reduces food intake, body mass, fasting insulin and glucose intolerance; these effects are eliminated in GDF15 null mice. An increase in serum GDF15 is also associated with weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes who take metformin. Although further studies will be required to determine the tissue source(s) of GDF15 produced in response to metformin in vivo, our data indicate that the therapeutic benefits of metformin on appetite, body mass and serum insulin depend on GDF15.

Paper title : TGF-b superfamily cytokine MIC-1/GDF15 is a physiological appetite and body weight regulator.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055174

Abstract : The TGF-b superfamily cytokine MIC-1/GDF15 circulates in all humans and when overproduced in cancer leads to anorexia/cachexia, by direct action on brain feeding centres. In these studies we have examined the role of physiologically relevant levels of MIC-1/GDF15 in the regulation of appetite, body weight and basal metabolic rate. MIC-1/GDF15 gene knockout mice (MIC-1(-/-)) weighed more and had increased adiposity, which was associated with increased spontaneous food intake. Female MIC-1(-/-) mice exhibited some additional alterations in reduced basal energy expenditure and physical activity, possibly owing to the associated decrease in total lean mass. Further, infusion of human recombinant MIC-1/GDF15 sufficient to raise serum levels in MIC-1(-/-) mice to within the normal human range reduced body weight and food intake. Taken together, our findings suggest that MIC-1/GDF15 is involved in the physiological regulation of appetite and energy storage.

Paper title : GDF15 is a major determinant of ketogenic diet-induced weight loss.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2023.11.003

Abstract : A ketogenic diet (KD) has been promoted as an obesity management diet, yet its underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here we show that KD reduces energy intake and body weight in humans, pigs, and mice, accompanied by elevated circulating growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15). In GDF15- or its receptor GFRAL-deficient mice, these effects of KD disappeared, demonstrating an essential role of GDF15-GFRAL signaling in KD-mediated weight loss. Gdf15 mRNA level increases in hepatocytes upon KD feeding, and knockdown of Gdf15 by AAV8 abrogated the obesity management effect of KD in mice, corroborating a hepatic origin of GDF15 production. We show that KD activates hepatic PPARγ, which directly binds to the regulatory region of Gdf15, increasing its transcription and production. Hepatic Pparγ-knockout mice show low levels of plasma GDF15 and significantly diminished obesity management effects of KD, which could be restored by either hepatic Gdf15 overexpression or recombinant GDF15 administration. Collectively, our study reveals a previously unexplored GDF15-dependent mechanism underlying KD-mediated obesity management.

Paper title : PLAB, a novel placental bone morphogenetic protein.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-4781(97)00122-x

Abstract : Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) constitute a sub-group of the large transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) family. They play important roles in the embryonic development of multiple structures and in adult bone modeling. We have recently isolated a novel member of the BMP family from placenta, termed PLAB. PLAB is expressed highly in placenta, but can be found upon stringent analysis in low levels in most other tissues. At the amino acid level, PLAB is most closely related to BMP-8/OP-2, another member of the BMP family. Like TGF-beta, PLAB inhibits the proliferation of primitive hematopoietic progenitors. The high expression of PLAB by placenta raises the possibility that it may be a mediator of placental control of embryonic development.

Paper title : GDF15 Provides an Endocrine Signal of Nutritional Stress in Mice and Humans.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.12.016

Abstract : GDF15 is an established biomarker of cellular stress. The fact that it signals via a specific hindbrain receptor, GFRAL, and that mice lacking GDF15 manifest diet-induced obesity suggest that GDF15 may play a physiological role in energy balance. We performed experiments in humans, mice, and cells to determine if and how nutritional perturbations modify GDF15 expression. Circulating GDF15 levels manifest very modest changes in response to moderate caloric surpluses or deficits in mice or humans, differentiating it from classical intestinally derived satiety hormones and leptin. However, GDF15 levels do increase following sustained high-fat feeding or dietary amino acid imbalance in mice. We demonstrate that GDF15 expression is regulated by the integrated stress response and is induced in selected tissues in mice in these settings. Finally, we show that pharmacological GDF15 administration to mice can trigger conditioned taste aversion, suggesting that GDF15 may induce an aversive response to nutritional stress.

Paper title : Pharmacological but not physiological GDF15 suppresses feeding and the motivation to exercise.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21309-x

Abstract : Growing evidence supports that pharmacological application of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) suppresses appetite but also promotes sickness-like behaviors in rodents via GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL)-dependent mechanisms. Conversely, the endogenous regulation of GDF15 and its physiological effects on energy homeostasis and behavior remain elusive. Here we show, in four independent human studies that prolonged endurance exercise increases circulating GDF15 to levels otherwise only observed in pathophysiological conditions. This exercise-induced increase can be recapitulated in mice and is accompanied by increased Gdf15 expression in the liver, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle. However, whereas pharmacological GDF15 inhibits appetite and suppresses voluntary running activity via GFRAL, the physiological induction of GDF15 by exercise does not. In summary, exercise-induced circulating GDF15 correlates with the duration of endurance exercise. Yet, higher GDF15 levels after exercise are not sufficient to evoke canonical pharmacological GDF15 effects on appetite or responsible for diminishing exercise motivation.

Paper title : Room-temperature structural studies of SARS-CoV-2 protein NendoU with an X-ray free-electron laser.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.str.2022.12.009

Abstract : NendoU from SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the virus's ability to evade the innate immune system by cleaving the polyuridine leader sequence of antisense viral RNA. Here we report the room-temperature structure of NendoU, solved by serial femtosecond crystallography at an X-ray free-electron laser to 2.6 Å resolution. The room-temperature structure provides insight into the flexibility, dynamics, and other intrinsic properties of NendoU, with indications that the enzyme functions as an allosteric switch. Functional studies examining cleavage specificity in solution and in crystals support the uridine-purine cleavage preference, and we demonstrate that enzyme activity is fully maintained in crystal form. Optimizing the purification of NendoU and identifying suitable crystallization conditions set the benchmark for future time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography studies. This could advance the design of antivirals with higher efficacy in treating coronaviral infections, since drugs that block allosteric conformational changes are less prone to drug resistance.

Paper title : Antibody-mediated inhibition of GDF15-GFRAL activity reverses cancer cachexia in mice.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0945-x

Abstract : Cancer cachexia is a highly prevalent condition associated with poor quality of life and reduced survival1. Tumor-induced perturbations in the endocrine, immune and nervous systems drive anorexia and catabolic changes in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, hallmarks of cancer cachexia2-4. However, the molecular mechanisms driving cachexia remain poorly defined, and there are currently no approved drugs for the condition. Elevation in circulating growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) correlates with cachexia and reduced survival in patients with cancer5-8, and a GDNF family receptor alpha like (GFRAL)-Ret proto-oncogene (RET) signaling complex in brainstem neurons that mediates GDF15-induced weight loss in mice has recently been described9-12. Here we report a therapeutic antagonistic monoclonal antibody, 3P10, that targets GFRAL and inhibits RET signaling by preventing the GDF15-driven interaction of RET with GFRAL on the cell surface. Treatment with 3P10 reverses excessive lipid oxidation in tumor-bearing mice and prevents cancer cachexia, even under calorie-restricted conditions. Mechanistically, activation of the GFRAL-RET pathway induces expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in adipose tissues, and both peripheral chemical sympathectomy and loss of adipose triglyceride lipase protect mice from GDF15-induced weight loss. These data uncover a peripheral sympathetic axis by which GDF15 elicits a lipolytic response in adipose tissue independently of anorexia, leading to reduced adipose and muscle mass and function in tumor-bearing mice.

Paper title : Identification of a novel member of the TGF-beta superfamily highly expressed in human placenta.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1119(97)00485-x

Abstract : While conducting a gene discovery effort targeted to transcripts of the prevalent and intermediate frequency classes in placenta throughout gestation, we identified a novel member of the TGF-beta superfamily that is expressed at high levels in human placenta. Hence, we named this factor 'Placental Transforming Growth Factor Beta' (PTGFB). The full-length sequence of the 1.2-kb PTGFB mRNA has the potential of encoding a putative pre-pro-PTGFB protein of 295 amino acids and a putative mature PTGFB protein of 112 amino acids. Multiple sequence alignments of PTGFB and representative members of all TGF-beta subfamilies evidenced a number of conserved residues, including the seven cysteines that are almost invariant in all members of the TGF-beta superfamily. The single-copy PTGFB gene was shown to be composed of only two exons of 309 bp and 891 bp, separated by a 2.9-kb intron. The gene was localized to chromosome 19p12-13.1 by fluorescence in-situ hybridization. Northern analyses revealed a complex tissue-specific pattern of expression and a second transcript of 1.9 kb that is predominant in adult skeletal muscle. Most importantly, the 1.2-kb PTGFB transcript was shown to be expressed in placenta at much higher levels than in any other human fetal or adult tissue surveyed.

Paper title : Placenta and appetite genes GDF15 and IGFBP7 are associated with hyperemesis gravidarum.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03258-0

Abstract : Hyperemesis gravidarum (HG), severe nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, occurs in 0.3-2% of pregnancies and is associated with maternal and fetal morbidity. The cause of HG remains unknown, but familial aggregation and results of twin studies suggest that understanding the genetic contribution is essential for comprehending the disease etiology. Here, we conduct a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for binary (HG) and ordinal (severity of nausea and vomiting) phenotypes of pregnancy complications. Two loci, chr19p13.11 and chr4q12, are genome-wide significant (p < 5 × 10-8) in both association scans and are replicated in an independent cohort. The genes implicated at these two loci are GDF15 and IGFBP7 respectively, both known to be involved in placentation, appetite, and cachexia. While proving the casual roles of GDF15 and IGFBP7 in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy requires further study, this GWAS provides insights into the genetic risk factors contributing to the disease.

Paper title : GDF-15 Neutralization Alleviates Platinum-Based Chemotherapy-Induced Emesis, Anorexia, and Weight Loss in Mice and Nonhuman Primates.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.10.023

Abstract : Platinum-based cancer therapy is restricted by dose-limiting side effects and is associated with elevation of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15). But whether this elevation contributes to such side effects has been unclear. Here, we explored the effects of GDF-15 blockade on platinum-based chemotherapy-induced emesis, anorexia, and weight loss in mice and/or nonhuman primate models. We found that circulating GDF-15 is higher in subjects with cancer receiving platinum-based chemotherapy and is positively associated with weight loss in colorectal cancer (NCT00609622). Further, chemotherapy agents associated with high clinical emetic score induce circulating GDF-15 and weight loss in mice. Platinum-based treatment-induced anorexia and weight loss are attenuated in GDF-15 knockout mice, while GDF-15 neutralization with the monoclonal antibody mAB1 improves survival. In nonhuman primates, mAB1 treatment attenuates anorexia and emesis. These results suggest that GDF-15 neutralization is a potential therapeutic approach to alleviate chemotherapy-induced side effects and improve the quality of life.

Paper title : GDF15 mediates the effects of metformin on body weight and energy balance.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1911-y

Abstract : Metformin, the world's most prescribed anti-diabetic drug, is also effective in preventing type 2 diabetes in people at high risk1,2. More than 60% of this effect is attributable to the ability of metformin to lower body weight in a sustained manner3. The molecular mechanisms by which metformin lowers body weight are unknown. Here we show-in two independent randomized controlled clinical trials-that metformin increases circulating levels of the peptide hormone growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), which has been shown to reduce food intake and lower body weight through a brain-stem-restricted receptor. In wild-type mice, oral metformin increased circulating GDF15, with GDF15 expression increasing predominantly in the distal intestine and the kidney. Metformin prevented weight gain in response to a high-fat diet in wild-type mice but not in mice lacking GDF15 or its receptor GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL). In obese mice on a high-fat diet, the effects of metformin to reduce body weight were reversed by a GFRAL-antagonist antibody. Metformin had effects on both energy intake and energy expenditure that were dependent on GDF15, but retained its ability to lower circulating glucose levels in the absence of GDF15 activity. In summary, metformin elevates circulating levels of GDF15, which is necessary to obtain its beneficial effects on energy balance and body weight, major contributors to its action as a chemopreventive agent.

Paper title : Whole-exome sequencing uncovers new variants in GDF15 associated with hyperemesis gravidarum.

Doi : https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.17129

Abstract : Whole‐exome sequencing reveals placenta and vomiting hormone GDF15 most likely cause of Hyperemesis Gravidarum.